19th+Century+Urban+Society


 * Benthamite**: A follower of Jeremy Bentham. "The Greatest Good for the Greatest Number", a follower of radical philosopher, Jeremy Bentham. Who believed that public problems should be dealt with on a __radical scientific basis__. Edwin Chadwick was a bethamite.

**miasmatic theory:** "Miasma" means pollution. The theory that people got sick from smelling bad odors of decay and excrement. Edwin Chadwick believed in this idea. It was weakened after the 1850's and the introduction of the germ theory.

**germ theory**: From French chemist Louis Pasteur in 1854. He observed fermentation and found how bacteria grew and wanted to avoid food spoilage. He also saw that if he heated beer the fermentation would stop. This lead to the pasteurization. In 1870 it was published that germs and bacteria are the cause of disease. with the concept of the pasteurization the desease in cities went down as a result and city conditions went up

**pasteurization**: Fermentation depended on growth of living organisms and that the activity of these organisms could be ended by heating the beverage. A result of the germ theory and was created and named after Louis Pasteur. He found out that by cooling a beverage or food product that germs would almost stop them from multiplying, making the product last longer before spoiling. He also found out that by heating the item that the germs would die, making it safer to eat and last longer. He also explained why the salt on the food, which they had been doing for centuries, was taking out the water which was where most of the germs were, making the food last longer.

**labor aristocracy** The labor aristocracy were at the top of the working class hierarchy and made up about 15% of the working class. They made similar salaries to those in the lower middle class and held similar ideals. They viewed themselves an an example for the rest of the working class and had very high morals and frowned upon public drunkenness and promiscuity. They were highly skilled and made handicrafts. It was difficult to make a living as a skilled worked because they had to compete with the mass production of the factories. They tried to save their money so that their children could maybe advance to the middle class when they grew up.


 * illegitimacy explosion** The illegitimacy explosion occurred between 1750 and 1850. In different parts of Europe**,** either 1/2 or 1/3 births were out of wedlock. This was a result of the fact that people could not afford to get married and in the working class illegitimacy was viewed less harshly because if they through their daughter out, they knew that she would be cursed to life on the street. Rural and some religious communities (Catholics, Calvinists, Jews, Muslims) avoided the explosion. After 1850, illegitimacy declined due to stricter morals and the fact that people could now afford to be married. "Skipping out" was viewed as unacceptable.


 * defense mechanism**: A part of our unconscious that protects us from emotional harm. Freud believed that defense mechanisms controlled almost all of our daily actions and thoughts, although we did not know it. In order for one to find and change their defense mechanisms one has to go deep within their subconscious and find what triggers the defense mechanisms.


 * thermodynamics-** is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency. []


 * organic chemistry-** the study of the compounds of carbon. Chemists were devising ways of measuring the atomic wight of different elements, and in 1869 the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev codified the rules of chemistry in the periodic law and the periodic table. Chemistry was then divided into groups. Organic Chemistry was one of them. By discovering this, German chemical companiesstated discovering ways of transforming the dirty, useless coal tar that accumulated in the coke ovens into beautiful, expensive synthetic dyes for the world of fashion.


 * Michael Faraday**: An English chemist and physicist, he studied magnetic fields that are generated around conductor of an electric current.This lead to the concept of electromagnetic fields.


 * Dmitri Mendeleev**: He was a Russian chemist who invented the first version of the periodic table of elements. By using the table he discovered the properties of elements.


 * positivist method -** also known as the scientific method. It was believed by Comte, that by applying this method, his new discipline of sociology would soon discover the eternal laws of human relations. This then would in turn enable expert social scientists to impose a disciplined harmony and well-being on less enlightened citizens.

Darwin was hailed as the "Newton of Biology." Many writers applied his theory of biological evolution to their writings. Those people were called Social Darwinists.
 * Social Darwinists:** such as Herbert Spencer, applied Darwin's idea to human affairs. Darwin set off on a cruise to Latin America four five years. He collected specimens of different animal species that he encountered on his voyage. once he returned to England, he was convinced that the earth and the life on it was very ancient. He started to doubt the general belief in a special divine creation of each species of animal. Instead, he concluded that all life had gradually evolved from a common ancestral origin in an unending "struggle for survival". He then published his findings in the book On The Origin of Species by the Means of Natural Selection. He argued that chance differences among the members of a given species help some survive while others die.

Realist writers, led by Zola, gloried in everyday life, taboo subjects, and the urban working class. The realists were strict determinists and believed that human actions were caused by unalterable natural laws.
 * Realism:**stressed that heredity and environment determined human behavior, replaced romanticism as the dominant literary trend from the 1840's to the 1890's

Written by Joseph Lister and was about new advancements in medical care. Surgeons now have much better knowledge of ways to cure and heal the sick and injured. After this, a lot less people died by stupid methods of helping and treating people.
 * antiseptic principle**:


 * separate spheres** These were established as men became the wage earner and women were seen as the homemaker. It became stranger and less possible for a woman to work outside the home. also if a women did work outside their home it was an embarisment for the man considering the man was seen as a failer then for not earning enough money to suport the family. or if a women got a job her earnings were very little compared to that of a man's earnings.


 * evolution:** **urbanization:** The growth of urban areas. With new public transportation, people didn't have to live in the crowed, filthy cities to work.


 * Edwin Chadwick:** Was a bethamite, was influenced by Bentham's ideas of the greatest good for the greatest number. He was a commissioner charged with administrating relief to paupers under Britain's revised poor law of 1834. He believed that cleaning the city would curtail disease, (disease and death caused poverty). He proposed the installation of running water and sewers and it was 1/20 the cost. After this, new sanitation methods and public health laws were adopted all over Europe from the 1840's on.


 * “sanitary idea”:** developed by Edwin Chadwick to develop new sanitation methods and laws. Was a result of the germ theory. some of the problems that were fixed were: sewage, more green area, porta potties, and living conditions.

Wrote the ANTISEPTIC PRINCIPLE which helped improve surgical practices. Lived in Germany. theorized that all life had evolved gradually from a common origin through an unending "struggle for survival" that led to the survival of the fittest, natural selection. "It may be said that natural selection is daily and hourly scrutinizing, throughout the world, every variation, even the slightest; rejecting that which is bad, preserving and adding up all that is good; silently and insensibly working, whenever and wherever opportunity offers, at the improvement of each organic being in relation to its organic and inorganic conditions of life. We see nothing of these slow changes in progress, until the hand of time has marked the long lapses of ages, and then so imperfect is our view into long past geological ages, that we only see that the forms of life are now different from what they formerly were."-quote from the book
 * Joseph Lister**
 * Charles Darwin, //On the Origin of Species://**


 * Hebert Spencer, Social Darwinism-** He was a disciple of Auguste Comte. He saw the human race as driven forward to ever-greater specialization and progress by the brutal economic struggle. He said that this struggle was the "survival of the fittest".

**:** in studying family dynamics, developed his theory of the Oedipal complex (named after the ancient Greek story of king Oedipus, who inadvertently killed his father and married his mother. ): that a son competes with his father for his mother's love. boy is fixated on his mother and competes with his father for maternal attention. The opposite, the attraction of a girl to her father and rivalry with her mother, is sometimes called the Electra complex. At some point, the child realizes that there is a difference between their mother and their father. Around the same time they realize that they are more alike to one than the other. Thus the child acquires gender.The child may also form some kind of erotic attachment to the parent of the opposite sex. Whilst their understanding of the full sexual act may be questioned, some kind of primitive physical sensations are felt when they regard and think about the parent in question.Note that opposition to parents may not necessarily be sexually based -- this can also be a part of the struggle to assert one's identity and rebellion against parental control. A critical aspect of the Oedipal stage is loosening of the ties to the mother of vulnerability, dependence and intimacy. This is a natural part of the child becoming more independent and is facilitated by the realization that the mother desires more than just the child.The Oedipal move blocks the routes of sexual and [|identification] love back to the mother. She becomes a separate object, removed from his ideal self. Thus she //can// be the subject of object love. ( [] ) He believed that defense mechanisms and sexual energy dictated our lives and actions. He stressed the importance of the unconscious and its impact on us.
 * Sigmund Freud:**

-Theory of Relativity Lived in Germany, born 1905 Matter and energy are interchangeable and that even a particle of __matter contains enormous levels of potential energy.__
 * Albert Einstein**

He was a French novelist and playwright. His //[|magnum opus]// was a [|sequence] of short stories and novels collectively entitled //[|La Comédie humaine]//, which presents a panorama of French life in the years after the fall of [|Napoleon I] in 1815. Due to his keen observation of detail and unfiltered representation of society, Balzac is regarded as one of the founders of [|realism] in [|European literature]. He is renowned for his multi-faceted characters, which are complex, morally ambiguous and fully human. His writing influenced many famous authors, including the novelists [|Marcel Proust], [|Émile Zola], [|Charles Dickens], [|Edgar Allan Poe], [|Fyodor Dostoyevsky], [|Gustave Flaubert], [|Marie Corelli], [|Henry James], [|William Faulkner], [|Jack Kerouac], and [|Italo Calvino] as well as important philosophers such as [|Friedrich Engels]. Many of Balzac's works have been made into or inspired films, and they are a continuing source of inspiration for writers, filmmakers, and critics alike.
 * Honoré de Balzac-**

Leo Tolstoy- he was a famous and well-known Russian novelist. He wrote the novel War and Peace. It featured over 580 characters. Some were fictional, and others were real life people. It represented the breadth and 19th century life of the Russian citizens and people.